ENGLISH HONOURS/CU - CC1 (SEMESTER 1, CODE –ENG-A-CC-1-1-TH/TU)
ENGLISH HONOURS
COURSE DETAILS: FOR ALL 14 CORE COURSES, THE MARKS DIVISION IS
AS FOLLOWS:
[End
Semester – 65/Tutorial – 15/Internal – 10/Attendance – 10]
CC1 (SEMESTER 1, CODE
–ENG-A-CC-1-1-TH/TU)
HISTORY OF LITERATURE AND PHILOLOGY - 6 CREDITS (5 CREDITS THEORY AND 1
CREDIT TUTORIAL)
Group A: History of Literature
Section 1:
Unit A – Old English Heroic
Poetry, Old English Prose and Chaucer
Unit B – Elizabethan Sonnets,
University Wits and Ben Jonson
Unit C– Restoration Comedy of Manners and Eighteenth Century Novels
Section 2:
Unit D – Pre-Romantic Poetry and Romantic Non-fiction Prose
Unit E–Victorian Novel and the Pre-Raphaelites
Unit F –Modern Novel: Joseph
Conrad, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce
Modern
Poetry: T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, Dylan
Thomas
Modern Drama: Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, John Osborne
Suggested Readings:
1. Andrew Sanders: The Short Oxford History of English Literature
2. Edward Albert: History of English Literature
3. Michael Alexander: A History of English Literature
4. G.M. Trevelyan: English Social History
5. Bibhash Choudhury: English Social and Cultural History
End Semester Question
Pattern:
Objective 5 marks from Section 1
Section 1:
Unit A – Old English Heroic
Poetry, Old English Prose and Chaucer
Unit B – Elizabethan Sonnets,
University Wits and Ben Jonson
Unit C– Restoration Comedy of Manners and Eighteenth Century Novels
One question of 10 marks from Section 1 (out of 3, 1
from each unit)
Section 1:
Unit A – Old English Heroic
Poetry, Old English Prose and Chaucer
Unit B – Elizabethan Sonnets,
University Wits and Ben Jonson
Unit C– Restoration Comedy of Manners and Eighteenth Century Novels
One question of 5 marks from Section 1 (out of 3, 1
from each unit)
Section 1:
Unit A – Old English Heroic
Poetry, Old English Prose and Chaucer
Unit B – Elizabethan Sonnets,
University Wits and Ben Jonson
Unit C– Restoration Comedy of Manners and Eighteenth Century Novels
Objective 5 marks from Section 2
Section 2:
Unit D – Pre-Romantic Poetry and Romantic Non-fiction Prose
Unit E–Victorian Novel and the Pre-Raphaelites
Unit F –Modern Novel: Joseph
Conrad, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce
Modern
Poetry: T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, Dylan
Thomas
Modern Drama: Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, John Osborne
One question of 10 marks from Section 2 (out of 3, 1
from each unit)
Section 2:
Unit D – Pre-Romantic Poetry and Romantic Non-fiction Prose
Unit E–Victorian Novel and the Pre-Raphaelites
Unit F –Modern Novel: Joseph
Conrad, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce
Modern
Poetry: T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, Dylan
Thomas
Modern Drama: Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, John Osborne
One question of 5 marks from Section 2 (out of 3, 1
from each unit)
Section 2:
Unit D – Pre-Romantic Poetry and Romantic Non-fiction Prose
Unit E–Victorian Novel and the Pre-Raphaelites
Unit F –Modern Novel: Joseph
Conrad, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce
Modern
Poetry: T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, Dylan
Thomas
Modern Drama: Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, John Osborne
Group B:
Philology
Section 1:
Latin Influence, Scandinavian Influence, French Influence, Americanism
One question of 10 marks from Section 1 (out of three)
Section 2:
Consonant Shift and Word Formation Processes (Shortening,
Back-formation, Derivations), Short Notes (Hybridism, Monosyllabism, Free &
Fixed Compounds, Malapropism, ingformation,
Johnsonese)
One question of 10 marks out of two, and one question
of 5 marks out of two from Section
2
Suggested Readings:
1. Otto Jespersen: Growth and Structure of the English Language (Chapters
4, 5, 6, 8, 10)
2. C.L. Wren: The English Language (Chapters 6 & 7)
3. A.C. Baugh: A History of English Language
4. C.L. Barber: The Story of Language
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS : Marks 1x5=5
Section 1:
Unit A – Old English Heroic
Poetry, Old English Prose and Chaucer
1. Mention the Old
English period. Later 5th Century - 1066
2. Name two Anglo-Saxon
poems that says of the life of Scop [Scops were the keepers of tribal
histories as well as influencers of tribal values] Widsith, and Deor’s Lament
3. Name three Northhumbrian
[was a dialect of Old English spoken in the Anglian
Kingdom of Northumbria.] writers.
4. Name the earliest
specimens of Anglo-Saxon heroic or epic poetry.
Beawulf,
The Fight of Finnsburh, The Battle of Brunanburh, The Battle of Maldon.and Waldere.
5. Name some of the
Anglo-Saxon Pagan lyrical poetry.
Widsith, Deor’s Lament, Wanderer, The Wife’s Clompaint,The
Husband’s Messege and The ruined Burg.
6. Name some of the
Anglo-Saxon Religious poetry.
7. Name main Anglo-Saxon Religious poets.
Bede,Caedmon [c.675] and Cynewulf [c.800].
8.
Which
are the the four manuscript in which the surviving Anglo Saxon poetry is preserved?
Junius
Manuscript, the Exert Book,the Beowulf manuscript, the Vercelli book.
9.
Name the dialect in which Beowulf is preserved?
West Saxon
10. What is Kennings? Give two examples.
11. Name the
Anglo-Saxon work that says the story of national defeat.
12. The Battle of Maldon
13. Name the Anglo Saxon poem in which protagonist is a woman. Judith
14. Which Anglo
Saxon poem a mythological bird is named
after? The
Phoenix
15. Who is the first great English historian? Venerable Bede
16. Which are
the four poems of Cynewulf bearing his signature in runic letters.
Juliana, Elene, Christ and The Fates of the Apostles.
17. What is the meaning of the word ‘Widsith’? Far Traveller.
18.
Name few Christian poems that Junius MS
contains.
Genesis, Exodus, Daniel and Christ and Satan
19. What is the most
important work of Caedmon? Genesis.
20. Name some of the
Anglo-Saxon Pagan poetries.
Widsith, Waldare,The Battle of Finnsburh, The Battle of Maldon and
The Battle of Brunanburh.
21. Name two Anglo Norman prose works.
22. Who is called the father of english
prose?
23. Name five translations of Alfred.
24. Name two works of Alfric. Lives of the Saints(998) and Catholic Homilies
(990–992)
25.
Name
the works of Wulfstan . Sermo Lupi ad Anglos
26. Poems named after
Caedmon.
Genesis, Exodus, Daniel and Christ and Satan[ Lament of the
Three Angels, Harrowing of Hells,The Temptation of Christ],Judith.
__________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS: Marks 5x1=5 (200 words)
Section 1:
Unit A – Old English Heroic Poetry, Old English Prose and Chaucer
King Hrothgar of Denmark was a descendant of the great king Shield Sheafson.He enjoyed a prosperous and successful reign. He built a great mead-hall, called Heorot.There his warriors could gather to drink, receive gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung by the scops, or bards. But Grendel, a horrible demon lived in the swamp lands of Hrothgar’s kingdom. Grendel used to terrorise the Danes every night. He even killed them . The Danes suffered years of fear and death at the hands of Grendel. Then a young Geatish warrior named Beowulf inspired by the challenge, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a small company of men, determined to defeat Grendel.
 |
| HORTHGAR |
Hrothgar, had once done a
great favor for Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow.So he accepted Beowulf’s offer to
fight Grendel.He arrenged a feast in the hero’s honor. During the feast, an envious
Dane named Unferth taunted Beowulf. Beowulf orated some of his past achievements. His confidence
amazed the Danish warriors. At last, Grendel arrived. Beowulf fought him
unarmed and proved himself stronger. The
demon was terrified. Beowulf tore the
monster’s arm off. Mortally wounded and Grendel escaped back into the swamp to
die. The severed arm is hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory.
 |
| GRENDEL |
Overwhelmed in joy, Hrothgar showered Beowulf with gifts and treasure. Beowulf became hero and the celebration lasted late into the night. But another threat was approaching. Grendel’s mother, a swamp-hag. She lived in a desolate lake, came to take revenge for her son’s death. She murdered Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisers. To avenge Aeschere’s death, the company travels to the murky swamp. There Beowulf dived into the water and over did Grendel’s mother in her underwater lair. He killed her with a sword forged for a giant. Then, he found and brought the head as a prize to Hrothgar.Thus Beowulf’s fame spreads across the kingdom. Ultimately,Beowulf departed after a sorrowful goodbye to Hrothgar. He returned to Geatland. There he and his men are reunited with their king and queen, Hygelac and Hygd.
In time, Hygelac was killed in a war against the Shylfings, and, after his son’s death Beowulf ascended to the throne of the Geats. He ruled wisely for fifty years. After some years Beawulf grew old. Then a thief disturbed a barrow, or mound, where a great dragon lied guarding a horde of treasure. Thus the dragon emerged from the barrow in rage.It started fiery destruction upon the Geats. So,Beowulf went to fight the dragon. He succeeded to kill the beast, but the dragon bit him in the neck, and he met his end. Thus,According to Beowulf’s wish, he was burnt on a huge funeral pyre and then burried with a massive treasure in a barrow overlooking the sea. [463]
ref:spark notes
ADAM
BEDE : OE
Bede (672/3 – 26 May 735), also known as Saint Bede, Venerable Bede, was an English Benedictine monk at the monastery of St. Peter. He is well known as an
author, teacher , and scholar, and his most famous work, Ecclesiastical History of the English People. It gained him the title "The
Father of English
History". His ecumenical writings were extensive. He included a
number of Biblical commentaries. Bede introduced the science of calculating
calendar dates. One of the more important dates Bede tried to compute was Easter.
He also helped establish the practice of dating forward from the birth of
Christ. Bede was one of the greatest teachers and writers of the Early
Middle Ages. In 1899, Pope Leo XIII declared him a Doctor of the Church. He is the only native of Great
Britain to achieve this designation; Bede was really a skilled
linguist and translator. His contribution made the Latin and Greek writings of the early Church
Fathers much more lucid to his fellow Anglo-Saxons. Its contribution to English Christianity is phenomenal. Bede's monastery had access to an impressive library
which included works by Eusebius, Orosius, and many others.[192]
Ref: Wikipedia, Albert
Wulfstan: OE
Besides sermons
Wulfstan was also instrumental in drafting law codes for both kings Æthelred the Unready and Cnut the Great of
England. He is considered one of the two major prose writers of the late
Anglo-Saxon period in England.
His writings cover a wide range of topics in an
even greater range of genres, including homilies (or sermons), secular laws,
religious canons, and political theory. He was also a competent Latinist.
Wulfstan’s style is highly admired as it is easily recognizable and exceptionally
distinguished. This suggests Wulfstan’s writing is not only eloquent, but
poetic, and among many of his rhetorical devices has marked rhythm .It
becomes apparent that his writing was exceptionally neat and
well-structured – even his notes in the margins are well-organized and
tidy, and his handwriting itself is ornate but readable. [226]
Ref: wiki, Albert
The Battle of Brunanburh :OE
 |
| ATHELSTAN |
Mention of the battle is made in
dozens of sources and the battle is
found in the Old English poem Battle of Brunanburh, preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 973. The
historian Æthelweard wrote it.
It counts the dead kings and earls on the battlefield and pictures the Norsemen
slinking back to Dublin in their ships while their dead sons are being devoured
by ravens and wolves. The poem is probably a
poem of praise, to celebrate the
victory. Moreover,it is notable for the traditional elements and has been
praised for its authentic and fiercely nationalistic tone. The poem has a ‘saga
like’ style and has an evidence of the continuing attraction of the
"warrior tradition".It is said that some similar diction and
imageries are used as in Beowulf and language takes after that of the
Old English Genesis A. [206]
Ref: wiki, Albert , Britannica
JUDITH
WALDERE
AELFRIC
The Dream of the Rood
It one of the finest and earliest Christian poems and an example of the genre of dream poetry. This old english lyric is written in alliterative verse. Originally it is known only in fragmentary form from some 8th-century runic inscriptions on the Ruthwell Cross, but now it is standing in the parish church of Ruthwell. The complete version became known with the discovery of the 10th-century Vercelli Book in northern Italy in 1822. In a dream the unknown poet beholds a beautiful tree—the rood, or cross.
The poem is divided up into three separate sections: the first part (ll. 1–27), the second part (ll. 28–121) and the third part (ll. 122–156). In section one, the narrator has a vision of the Cross. Here, the dreamer sees the Cross which is covered with gems. He is aware of how wretched he is compared to how glorious the tree is. However, he comes to see that amidst the beautiful stones it is stained with blood. In section two, the Cross shares its account of Jesus' death and the story of Crucifixion is told from the view of the Cross. In final section , the author gives his understanding about this vision. He praises God for what he has seen and is filled with hope for eternal life and his desire to once again be near the glorious Cross.
It exhibits many Christian and pre-Christian images, but it is essentially a Christian piece dealing with the passion, death and resurrection of Christ as a triumph over sin and evil, the strongest mark of Christian faith.
The poem was originally known only in fragmentary form from some 8th-century runic inscriptions on the Ruthwell Cross, now standing in the parish church of Ruthwell, now Dumfries District, Dumfries and Galloway Region, Scot. The complete version became known with the discovery of the 10th-century Vercelli Book in northern Italy in 1822.[395]
WIDSITH [OE]
Widsith, Modern English Far Traveler,is an Old English poem, of 144 lines of verse. It is
said to be the oldest poem in the language. It draws
on earlier oral traditions of Anglo-Saxon tale
singing. It is preserved in the Exeter Book,
a 10th-century collection of Old English poetry. The poem has much importance
in historical point of view. “Widsith” is an idealized self-portrait of a scop (minstrel)
of the Germanic heroic age. He wandered widely and was welcomed in many mead
halls. The poem is obviously a fictitious account; besides it is an original
detail information of the important figures in Germanic hero legend and a
remarkable record of the scop’s role in early Germanic society.
It
consists largely of direct speech, framed by two short third person passages. The
first of which attributes the speech to a poet named Widsith, while the closing
passage talks more generally about the lifestyle of wandering poets. The name Widsith means “wide journey”.
Therefore, his speech says of his wanderings all over the world, and the
receptions that he received among various historical and legendary figures at various courts. Above all, poetically it is
of little merit. [198]
Ref: Wiki, Albert, Britannica, encyclopedia
THE SEAFARER [OE]
The Seafarer is an Old English poem consists of more or less 124
lines. It is recorded in the Exeter Book, one of the four surviving
manuscripts of Old English poetry. Some critics say that it is a
representative of Anglo-Saxon lyric. In the past it has been frequently
referred to as an elegy. Some scholars, however, have argued
that the content of the poem also links it with Sapiential Books, or Wisdom Literature. This category of literature mainly
consists of proverbs and maxims and is used with reference to Old Testament
books. The Seafarer has “significant sapiential material concerning the
definition of wise men, the ages of the world, and the necessity for patience
in adversity”. Wisdom Literature may also apply to The Seafarer from a Christian viewpoint.
It develops through a dialogue between an old sea
man and a young man who wishes to follow the sea. It is a reminiscing and evaluating
life . In lines 1–33a, the seafarer describes the desolate hardships of life on
the wintry sea. The anxious feelings, cold-wetness, and solitude of the sea
voyage in contrast to comfortable and secured life on land is described. The
comparison between earthly pleasure and heavenly reward is craft fully narrated.
The form of the poem is not praiseworthy and it has obscurity. The poem has two
parts. The opening lines are full of energy but the second part is full of obscurity. The Seafarer has been translated many times by numerous
scholars, poets, and other writers, starting with Benjamin Thorpe in 1842. [262]
Ref: Albert, Wiki
FINNESBURG FRAGMENT [OE]
The Finnesburg Fragment or Finnsburh Fragment is a fragment of an Old English heroic poem of
some forty eight lines. It is about a fight in which Hnæf,
elsewhere known as a Danish King and his 60 retainers are besieged at
"Finn's fort" . There they attempt to hold off their attackers. The
fragment begins with Hnæf's observation that what he sees outside "is not
the dawn in the East, nor is it the flight of a dragon, nor are the gables
burning". He sees the torches of
approaching attackers. Hnæf and his sixty retainers hold the doors for five
days ceaselessly. Then a wounded warrior turns away to talk to his chief and
the fragment ends. Neither the cause nor the outcome of the fight are described.
The poem is brief and allusive. The Finnesburg
Fragment itself has little mention of religious elements as the text of Beowulf does. In recent times
several critics have offered explanations for the Christian elements of the
poem. The references in Old English poetry,
notably Beowulf, suggests that it deals with a conflict
between Danes and Frisians in Migration-Age Frisia. The text is a transcript of a loose manuscript
folio. Above all, it is also said that it
is a literary example of the overlapping and melding of pagan and Christian
beliefs as they encountered one another. [228]
Ref:
Albert, Wiki
BATTLE OF MALDON
The Battle of Maldon, Old English heroic poem.It is a description of a historical
fight between East Saxons and Viking raiders in 991 near Maldon beside the River
Blackwater in Essex, England, during the reign of Aethelred the Unready .
Linguistic study speculated that initially the complete poem was transmitted
orally then in a lost manuscript in the East Saxon dialect and now survives as a
fragment in the West Saxon form, possibly that of a scribe active at the
Monastery of Worcester late in the 11th century. Fortunately this was early
attached to a manuscript, Asser's Life of King Alfred, which undoubtedly assisted
in its survival. The manuscript, by now detached, was burned in the Cotton
library fire at Ashburnham House in 1731. The keeper of the collection, John
Elphinstone (or his assistant, David Casley), had transcribed the 325 lines of the
poem in 1724, but the front and back pages were already missing from the
manuscript, possibly around 50 lines each.
The poem is vivid and has dramatic combat scenes. Its expression of the
Germanic ethos of loyalty to a leader is praiseworthy. It is specially outstanding
for sentiments expressed by the warriors and the individual deeds of valour.
The poem opens with the war parties aligned on either side of a stream . The
Vikings offer the cynical suggestion that the English may buy their peace with
golden rings. The English commander Earl Byrhtnoth replies that they will pay
their tribute in spears and darts. When the Vikings cannot advance because of
their poor position, Byrhtnoth recklessly allows them safe conduct across the
stream, and the battle follows. In spite of Byrhtnoth’s supreme feats of courage,
he is finally slain. [282]
Ref: Wiki, Albert
JUDITH [OE]
The Book of Judith is a deuterocanonical book. The Book of Judith can be
split into two parts . Chapters 1-7 describe the rise of the threat to
Israel. Israel was led by the evil king
Nebuchadnezzar and his sycophantic general Holofernes. His world-wide campaign
has converged at the mountain pass where Judith's village, Bethulia, is
located. Chapters 8-16 introduce Judith
and describe her heroic actions to save her people.
In this book, Judith is the heroine of the book. The story revolves around Judith, a daring and
beautiful widow. She is upset with her Jewish countrymen for not trusting God
to deliver them from their foreign conquerors. She goes with her loyal maid to
the camp of the enemy general, Holofernes, the villain of the book. . With him with she slowly ingratiates herself.
She promised him to give information of the Israelites. She gains his trust,
decapitates him and takes his head back to her fearful countrymen. The
Assyrians, having lost their leader, disperse, and Israel is saved. Though she
is courted by many, Judith remains unmarried for the rest of her life.
It is not clear
whether the Book of Judith was originally written in Hebrew or in
Greek. The book contains numerous historical anachronisms. The fictional nature is evident form
its blending of history and fiction as place names, the immense size of armies
and fortifications, and the dating of events, cannot be reconciled with the
historical record.
But, there have been various attempts by both scholars and
clergy to associate the characters and events in the Book with actual
personages and historical events. [271]
Ref: Wiki
EXODUS [OE]
The Book of Exodus or, Exodus an alliterative old
English heroic poem of 590 lines. In Greek ,exodos, means "going out".
It is not a paraphrase of bible. Rather than, it is a retelling of story in the
manner of heroic epic. Here Moses is a general and the poem tells of the story
how Egyptians are destroyed in the Red sea. The book tells how the children of Israel leave slavery in Egypt. the
God has chosen Israel as his people. Led
by their prophet Moses they journey through the wilderness to Mount
Sinai. There the God
promises them the land of Canaan (the
"Promised Land") in return for their
faithfulness. Israel enters into an agreement with the God. He gives them
their laws and instructions for the movable dwellings, the means by which he
will dwell with them and lead them to the land, and give them peace.
The book of Exodus is not historical. But in Exodus, everything is
presented as the work of God. He appears frequently in person, and the
historical setting is only very hazily sketched. The purpose of the book is not
to record what really happened, but to reflect the historical experience of the
exile community in Babylon and later Jerusalem. They face foreign captivity and
they need to come to terms with their understanding of God. Though mythical elements are not so
prominent in Exodus as in Genesis, the
echoes of ancient legends are crucial to understanding the book's origins and
purpose. [251]
Ref: Wiki
The Wanderers [OE]
It is an old English elegy of 115 lines preserved only in an
anthology known as the Exeter Book. The composer is anonymous. It has a finer
artistic composition and the personal feeling reaches a real height. Though
there is no real example of lyric in old English, but The Wanderer has some expressive
melancholy and personal emotion associated with the lyric.
The anonymous composer expresses the theme of loneliness, suffering
and religion. It has conveyed the meditation of a solitary man who has lost his lord and now wandering
to find his new lord. The poem starts with a solitary man, then shows his
troubled thought and at last his wise state of mind. The spiritual progress of
the wanderer has been drawn craft fully. While spending life in exile, he understands
the value of Christianity and the meaning beyond the temporary and permanent
value of life. He has to go even beyond his personal sorrow to learn it. As,
the voice of wisdom assured him that unconditional faith in God is the one and
only source to gain a secured and peaceful life in this earthly world. The poem
has some ambiguity in meaning and origin. The translations of many words are
also ambiguous. So, it is one of the most debated old English poems. [217]
Ref: Wiki, Albert, Britannica
WIFE’S LAMENT
HUSBAND’S MESSAGE
CYNEWULF
DANIEL
THE FATES OF APOSTLES
_________________________________________________________________
Q. Give a brief account of Anglo-Saxon/Old English heroic poetry.
Q. Give an account of Beowulf as an epic.
Ans: The word "epic" itself comes from the Greek epos, originally meaning "word" but later "oration" or "song." An epic is a long stylized narrative poem, composed in an elevated style about the deeds of warriors and heroes. It deals with the trials and achievements of a great hero or heroes celebrating virtues of national, military, religious, cultural, political, or historical significance. The word epics can be roughly defined as the ‘natural or primitive’ and ‘artificial or later’ in perspective of time. The Illiad ,The odysses, Mahabharat and obviously Beowulf are natural or primitive epic poem. There is little evidence of his authorship.
If we accept C. S.
Lewis’s classification of “epics of growth” and “epic of art”, Beowulf is
obviously an epic of growth. Modern scholars like Milman Parry and A. B.
Lord, conclused that like other great
epics of the ancient civilizations, Beowulf was also an oral epic, written down
by trained clerics.
Beowulf essentially has
features of epic.
A great quality of the epic is what Dr.
Tillyard terms ‘choric’. It means that
an epic should serve as the mouthpiece of an age, or of a nation or a religion.It
is true to Beowulf.
Besides, as a protagonist he has love
for glory and adventures, iron resolution, fearlessness and loyalty of an epic
hero.
In Beowulf we find concrete phrases. There
are no abstract expressions. We find abundance of picturesque compounds,
permanent epithets, repetitions and use of rhythmic languages like great epics.
Beowulf is full of all sorts of references and allusions to great
events, to the fortunes of kings and nations using vigorous speeches, wild scenes and
vigorous actions.
Regarding the form also, Beowulf
conforms most standard of epic convention. For example, It opens with a
prologue in the true epic manner.
But, Beowulf in comparison to the standard
of Homeric epics (15,000 lines). Beowulf is written in 3,200 lines.
We know that one of the great
qualities of the epic is the unity of design. Beowulf has this rare kind of
unity of plot, though in a bit different manner than some of the recognized
epics.
An epic requires completeness of
action. An epic must have a beginning, middle and an end. Unfortunately, we
find no central action in ‘Beowulf’. So it reminds us of dramatic epic.
Moreover, Beowulf lacks perfection of technique as in Homer. We
find lack of harmony between realism and idealism. So, the hero is not as
Achilles. Actually he has a folklore features and says of later mediaval
adventure and chivalrous romances.
Now, it can be concluded that Beowulf has a claim to be an epic with
some lack of characteristics, may be they are lesser in significance. So,
Beowulf is not a full-fledged epic, it may still be regarded as a document of epic poetry in evolution. It is an epic in
kind, if not in degree. [482]
Ref: Wiki,Albert,
Q. Give an account of Anglo-Saxon/Old English prose.
Q. Assess the importance of Alfred, Aelfric and Wulfstan in the history of English Prose.
Q. Write note on Anglo-Saxon/Old English prose with special reference to the Anglo-Saxon chronicles.
Q. Give a brief account of Chaucer's position in the history of English.
Q. Assess Chaucer's contribution to
English language and Literature.
ELIZABETHAN SONNETS
Sonnet (originating from the Italian “sonnetto”) refers to a short poem of fourteen lines with a special technical pattern. It originated in Italy in the master hands of Dante and Petrarch.
Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503 –1542), introduced the Italian sonnet and ‘terza rima’ verse
form and the French ‘rondeau’ into English literature. He wrote noteworthy thirty one
sonnets. Among them ten were translation from Petrarch .His sonnets were
serious and reflective in tone, has stiffness of construction and metrical
uncertainty. Moreover, he introduced couplet ending.
Then Earl of Surrey (1517-1547),
acknowledged Wyatt as a master and achieved a greater smoothness and firmness,
that were very important in the
evolution of the English sonnet. Mention should be made of Micheal Drayton
(1563 – 1631) whose sonnet sequence is called ‘idea’.
For many years after the publication of Tottel’s Miscellany the sonnet again
drew the attention of poets by Marlowe's friend Thomas Watson (1557-92).
His Catompathia was
published in 1582.
Besides them, the great sonneteers of this age are Sidney (1554-86), Spencer (1552-99) and Shakespeare.
After Shakespeare’s sonnets,
Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella is considered the finest Elizabethan sonnet . In it Sidney told the story of his unrequited
love for Penelope. He imagines himself to be Astrophel, pining for Stella, the
love of his life. His sonnets are characterized by intense subjectivity and
profound sincerity. Moreover, there is an idealistic zeal in his sonnets, that
elevates and adores love as the very ideal, the only object of life.
Edmund Spenser is an innovator in sonnet-writing. His famous
work is Amoretti. In his eighty-nine sonnets, his handling of the rhyme
structure is picturesque. Instead of the usual division of the sonnet into
octaves and sestets, he has divided the sonnet into three quatrains followed by
a concluding couplet. Spenser’s sonnet has five rhymes like the Petrarchan
sonnet, with a novelty in the very pattern of his rhyme to secure an effective
melody. The last line of every quatrain is made to rhyme with the first line of
the following quatrain. This generates a
fluidity, resulting in the sensuous sonority of his verse. It feels as
if one quatrain flows into another and creates a continuum. In the rise of the English sonnet, Wyatt, Sidney and
Spenser paved the way for the later master, William Shakespeare, to compose his
timeless sonnets.
Shakespeare's sonnets
are ‘attractive bone’ for the generation after generation of critics to
munch . He wrote one hundred and fifty-four sonnets. The first one hundred and
twenty-six sonnets are addressed to a young and handsome man. The
next twenty-six sonnets are addressed to a "dark" and
wanton lady who betrays the poet for the young man. Formally,
Shakespeare's sonnets follow the rhyme-scheme aba,cdcd, efef gg and he
often laments his anguish and misfortunes. In expressing his anguish Shakespeare
lends his verses an exceptional glow of lyrical melody and meditative energy. In
sonnets, in the words of Wordsworth, he "unlocked his heart". The
sonnet remains a monument of devoted love.[502]
Ref; Albert, wiki, Britannica
UNIVERSITY WITS
In there works there were fondness of heroic themes, fullness of
variety, splendid descriptiojn, long swelling speeches, violent incidents and
emotions. Moeover. Themes were tragic in nature and the style was heroic.
If we consider the individual contribution of the various University Wits we witness John Lyly (1554-1606) is the first English prose stylist to leave an enduring impression upon the language. He is better known for his prose romance Euphues than his dramatic productions. His plays are rather of the nature of masques. Lyly wrote eight plays in all out of which Compaspe, Endymion ,and Gallathea are the best and the best known. In his plays Lyly used a mixture of verse and prose and found a suitable blank verse for comedy.
Then Robert Greene (1558-92) wrote some five plays in all. Out of them the most important
and interesting is ‘Friar Bacon’ and ‘Friar Bongay’. He is weak in
characterization and style is not outstanding but his humour is pleasant and friendly.Greene
contributed substantially towards the establishment of the romantic comedy. Besides,
his thirty five prose works expresses his erratic energy, his wit and powerful
imagination.
Now, comes George Peele (1558-97) his five plays are not marked by any technical brilliance. But "he shares with Marlowe the honour of informing blank verse with musical ability that, in the later hand of Shakespeare, was to be one of its most important characteristics."
We also find, Thomas Lodge (1558-1625) and Thomas Nashe (1567-1601). Their dramatic work is inconsiderable. His only one play, ‘The Wounds of Civil War’,is a kind of chronicle play is mention worthy and his prose contains exquisite lyrics and the style is Euphuistic. His Rosalynde: Euphues Golden Legacy(1590)is much famous.
Both Nashe and he are much more important for their fiction than dramatic art. Nashe is appreciated for his eagerness to argue. He finished Marloww’e ‘Dido’, his ‘Summer’s Last Will and Testament’(1592) is a satirical masque and the prose ‘The Unfortunate Traveller ,or The life of Jacke Wilton’(1594)is important in the development of the novel.
Besides, Thomas Kyd (1557-97)the most important University
Wits is much more flexible in his attempt. His only
play The Spanish Tragedy. The
Spanish Tragedy breaks away from the Senecan tradition on various
points. The Elizabethan audiences had a craving for watching sensational, even
horrifying action. So, we find horrific plot, involving murder, frenzy and
sudden death which give the play an immense popularity.
Kyd's contribution
to English tragedy is twofold. First, he gave a new kind of tragic hero who was
neither a royal personage nor a superman but an ordinary person. Secondly, he
introduced the element of introspection in the hero. Along with the external conflict
in the play, In this; respect Kyd was paving the way for Shakespeare's Hamlet. Kyd's
extravagance is sometimes annoying but we must remember Compton-Rickett's words
that "even extravagance is better than lifelessness."
Above all, Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) is the most talented of
pre-Shakespeareans." Marlowe's
contribution to English tragedy is very vital and manifold.
First of all,
Marlowe exalted and varied the subject-matter of tragedy.He substituted the
more interesting theme of ambition for power.
Secondly, he put
forward a new kind of the tragic hero whose major flaw is always an
over-weening ambition. Their love is the love of the impossible; though they
are perished. Next, he gave a greater
unity to the drama. This he did in Edward
II. One of Marlowe's chief merits is his reformation of the
chronicle plays of his time. Also he gave shape and internal development to his
plots. He handled the crude historical material judiciously and artistically,
to suit his dramatic purpose.
Last but not the
least is Marlowe's establishment of blank verse as an effective and pliant
medium of tragic utterance and acknowledged by all his successors.
We also find,
‘Tamberline the great’, ‘The Jew of Malta’ and ‘Dr. Fautus’claim the attention
of the critics and with Marlowe, indeed, begins a new era in the history
of-English drama. [726]
BEN JONSON
Jonson achieved an
endearing niche in the heart of the
critics and readers for his comedies, tragedies, masques and lyrics. He was the
first English neo-classic who revolted against the artistic principles of his contemporaries.
Being a conscious artist and reformer his presentation of life is essentially
romantic.
Jonson’s plays are
clearly divided into comedies and tragedies. His genius is found best in his
comedies. His ‘ Every Man in his Humour’
[1598] It is said to be his greatest work. In which each major
character is dominated by an over-riding humour or obsession and play centres
on its characters of contemporary life and considerable less racy. ‘Every Man out of
His Humour’ is another satirical comedy is considerable less
racy.In ‘Cynthia’s Revel’ and ‘Poetaster’ are satires on contemporary literary
men. Poetaster, the most notable contribution to the War of Theatre,satires his
dramatic rivals Marston and Dekker. The other phenomenal works of Jonson are
Volpone or The Fox [1605], The Silent Woman[1609],The Alchemist[1610] and
Barthelomew Fayre(1610) are more matured and satirical in tone.The dialogues
are natural and realistic, and plot is resourceful. Besides the characters are
more convincing. We also find decrease of dramatic strength in his The Devin in
an Ass(1616) and The Staple of News(1625).
He has been described as 'One of the most vigorous minds that ever added to the strength of English literature. Jonson had versatility, grace, sweetness, style, insight, industry, wit, humour and learning and exerted a great influence on the playwrights who immediately followed him. But it was he, and he alone, who gave the essential impulse to dramatic characterization in comedy of the Restoration and also in the 18th and 19th centuries. [480]
Ref: Wiki, Albert, Britanica
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